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On the first part of the journey
I was looking at all the life
There were plants and birds and rocks and things
There was sand and hills and rings
The first thing I met was a fly with a buzz
And the sky with no clouds
The heat was hot and the ground was dry
But the air was full of sound

I've been through the desert on a horse with no name
It felt good to be out of the rain
In the desert you can remember your name
'Cause there ain't no one for to give you no pain
La, la ...

After two days in the desert sun
My skin began to turn red
After three days in the desert fun
I was looking at a river bed
And the story it told of a river that flowed
Made me sad to think it was dead

You see I've been through the desert on a horse with no name
It felt good to be out of the rain
In the desert you can remember your name
'Cause there ain't no one for to give you no pain
La, la ...

After nine days I let the horse run free
'Cause the desert had turned to sea
There were plants and birds and rocks and things
there was sand and hills and rings
The ocean is a desert with it's life underground
And a perfect disguise above
Under the cities lies a heart made of ground
But the humans will give no love

You see I've been through the desert on a horse with no name
It felt good to be out of the rain
In the desert you can remember your name
'Cause there ain't no one for to give you no pain

La, la ...

a horse with no name

IN THE DESERT

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CpSdePGgVyQ

AMERICA

In the desert YOU CAN REMEMBER your name

Cause THERE AIN'T NO ONE for to give you no pain

A HORSE WITH NO NAME

la la la

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CpSdePGgVyQ

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Rtnme4JqXg

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XIycEe59Auc

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Peter Helm

Shared publicly - 12:20 PM

AMERICA In the desert YOU CAN REMEMBER your name
Cause THERE AIN'T NO ONE for to give you no pain
A HORSE WITH NO NAME la la la
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CpSdePGgVyQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Rtnme4JqXg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XIycEe59Auc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O7ONp-GC7vM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O7ONp-GC7vM

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Peter Helm

12:26 PM

AMERICA
https://www.google.de/search?client=opera&q=america&sourceid=opera&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas

Americas
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see America (disambiguation).
The Americas
Americas (orthographic projection).svg
Area 42,549,000 km2 (16,428,000 mi2)
Population 954 million (July 2013 estimate) [1]
Demonym American,[2] New Worlder,[3] and Pan-American[4] are used (see usage)
Countries 35
Languages Spanish, English, Portuguese, French, Quechua, Haitian Creole, Guaraní, Aymara, Nahuatl, Dutch and many others
Time zones UTC-10 to UTC
Largest cities
Largest metropolitan areas:
Mexico City
São Paulo
New York City
Los Angeles
Buenos Aires
Rio de Janeiro
Lima
Chicago
Bogotá
Dallas
The Americas, or America,[5][6][7] also known as the Western Hemisphere[8] and the New World, comprise the totality of territories in North America and South America.[9][10][11]

Along with their associated islands, they cover 8% of the Earth's total surface area and 28.4% of its land area. The topography is dominated by the American Cordillera, a long chain of mountains that run the length of the west coast. The flatter eastern side of the Americas is dominated by large river basins, such as the Amazon, Mississippi, and La Plata. Since the Americas extend 14,000 km (8,700 mi) from north to south, the climate and ecology vary widely, from the arctic tundra of Northern Canada, Greenland, and Alaska, to the tropical rain forests in Central America and South America.

Humans first settled the Americas from Asia between 42,000 and 17,000 years ago. A second migration of Na-Dene speakers followed later from Asia. The subsequent migration of the Inuit into the neoarctic around 3500 BCE completed what is generally regarded as the settlement by the indigenous peoples of the Americas.

The first known European settlement in the Americas was by the Norse explorer Leif Ericson.[12] However the colonization never became permanent and was later abandoned. The voyages of Christopher Columbus from 1492 to 1502 resulted in permanent contact with European (and subsequently, other Old World) powers, which led to the Columbian exchange. Diseases introduced from Europe and Africa devastated the indigenous peoples, and the European powers colonized the Americas.[citation needed] Mass emigration from Europe, including large numbers of indentured servants, and forced immigration of African slaves largely replaced the indigenous peoples.

Decolonization of the Americas began with the American Revolution in 1776 and Haitian Revolution in 1791. Currently, almost all of the population of the Americas resides in independent countries; however, the legacy of the colonization and settlement by Europeans is that the Americas share many common cultural traits, most notably Christianity and the use of Indo-European languages; primarily Spanish, English, Portuguese, French and to a lesser extent, Dutch.

The population is approaching 1 billion, with over 65% of them living in one of the three most populous countries (the United States, Brazil, and Mexico). The most populous cities are São Paulo, Mexico City, New York City, Buenos Aires and Los Angeles.

CIA political map of the Americas in Lambert azimuthal equal-area projection
Contents [hide]
1 History
1.1 Settlement
1.2 Pre-Columbian era
1.3 European colonization
2 Etymology and naming
3 Geography
3.1 Extent
3.2 Geology
3.3 Topography
3.4 Climate
3.5 Hydrology
3.6 Ecology
4 Countries and territories
5 Demography
5.1 Population
5.2 Largest urban centers
5.3 Ethnology
5.4 Religion
5.5 Languages
6 Terminology
6.1 English
6.2 Spanish
6.3 Portuguese
6.4 French
6.5 Dutch
7 Multinational organizations
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
History
Main article: History of the Americas
Settlement
For more details on theories of Paleo-Indian migration, see Models of migration to the New World.

Map of early human migrations based on the Out of Africa theory.[13]
The first inhabitants migrated into the Americas from Asia. Habitation sites are known in Alaska and the Yukon from at least 20,000 years ago, with suggested ages of up to 40,000 years.[14][15][16] Beyond that, the specifics of the Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion.[17] Widespread habitation of the Americas occurred during the late glacial maximum, from 16,000 to 13,000 years ago.[16][18]

Statue representing the Americas at Palazzo Ferreria, in Valletta, Malta
The traditional theory has been that these early migrants moved into the Beringia land bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska around 40,000–17,000 years ago,[19] when sea levels were significantly lowered due to the Quaternary glaciation.[17][20] These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets.[21] Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific coast to South America.[22] Evidence of the latter would since have been covered by a sea level rise of hundreds of meters following the last ice age.[23] Both routes may have been taken, although the genetic evidences suggests a single founding population.[24] The micro-satellite diversity and distributions specific to South American Indigenous people indicates that certain populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region.[25]

A second migration occurred after the initial peopling of the Americas;[26] Na Dene speakers found predominantly in North American groups at varying genetic rates with the highest frequency found among the Athabaskans at 42% derive from this second wave.[27] Linguists and biologists have reached a similar conclusion based on analysis of Amerindian language groups and ABO blood group system distributions.[26][28][29][30] Then the people of the Arctic small tool tradition a broad cultural entity that developed along the Alaska Peninsula, around Bristol Bay, and on the eastern shores of the Bering Strait around 2,500 BCE (4,500 years ago) moved into North America.[31] The Arctic small tool tradition, a Paleo-Eskimo culture branched off into two cultural variants, including the Pre-Dorset, and the Independence traditions of Greenland.[32] The descendants of the Pre-Dorset cultural group, the Dorset culture was displaced by the final migrants from the Bering sea coast line the ancestors of modern Inuit, the Thule people by 1000 Common Era (CE).[32] Around the same time as the Inuit migrated into Greenland, Viking settlers began arriving in Greenland in 982 and Vinland shortly thereafter, establishing a settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows, near the northernmost tip of Newfoundland.[33] The Viking settlers quickly abandoned Vinland, and disappeared from Greenland by 1500.[34]

Pre-Columbian era
Main article: Pre-Columbian era

Parkin Site, a Mississippian site in Arkansas, circa 1539.
The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic to European colonization during the Early Modern period. The term Pre-Columbian is used especially often in the context of the great indigenous civilizations of the Americas, such as those of Mesoamerica (the Olmec, the Toltec, the Teotihuacano, the Zapotec, the Mixtec, the Aztec, and the Maya) and the Andes (Inca, Moche, Muisca, Cañaris).

Many pre-Columbian civilizations established characteristics and hallmarks which included permanent or urban settlements, agriculture, civic and monumental architecture, and complex societal hierarchies. Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first permanent European arrivals (c. late 15th–early 16th centuries), and are known only through archeological investigations. Others were contemporary with this period, and are also known from historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya, had their own written records. However, most Europeans of the time viewed such texts as pagan, and much was destroyed in Christian pyres. Only a few hidden documents remain today, leaving modern historians with glimpses of ancient culture and knowledge.[35]

European colonization
Main article: European colonization of the Americas
Although there had been previous trans-oceanic contact, large-scale European colonization of the Americas began with the first voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492. The first Spanish settlement in the Americas was La Isabela in northern Hispaniola. This town was abandoned shortly after in favor of Santo Domingo de Guzmán, founded in 1496, the oldest American city of European foundation. This was the base from which the Spanish monarchy administered its new colonies and their expansion. On the continent, Panama City on the Pacific coast of Central America, founded on August 5, 1519, played an important role, being the base for the Spanish conquest of South America. The spread of new diseases brought by Europeans and Africans killed many of the inhabitants of North America and South America,[36][37] with a general population crash of Native Americans occurring in the mid-16th century, often well ahead of European contact.[38] European immigrants were often part of state-sponsored attempts to found colonies in the Americas. Migration continued as people moved to the Americas fleeing religious persecution or seeking economic opportunities. Millions of individuals were forcibly transported to the Americas as slaves, prisoners or indentured servants.

Map showing the dates of independence from European powers. Black signifies areas that are dependent territories or parts of countries with a capital outside the Americas.
Decolonization of the Americas began with the American Revolution and the Haitian Revolution in the late 1700s. This was followed by numerous Latin American wars of independence in the early 1800s. Between 1811 and 1825, Paraguay, Argentina, Chile, Gran Colombia, the United Provinces of Central America, Mexico, Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia gained independence from Spain and Portugal in armed revolutions. After the Dominican Republic won independence from Haiti, it was re-annexed by Spain in 1861, but reclaimed its independence in 1865 at the conclusion of the Dominican Restoration War. The last violent episode of decolonization was the Cuban War of Independence which became the Spanish–American War, which resulted in the independence of Cuba in 1898, and the transfer of sovereignty over Puerto Rico from Spain to the United States.

Peaceful decolonization began with the purchase by the United States of Louisiana from France in 1803, Florida from Spain in 1819, of Alaska from Russia in 1867, and the Danish West Indies from Denmark in 1916. Canada became independent of the United Kingdom, starting with the Balfour Declaration of 1926, Statute of Westminster 1931, and ending with the patriation of the Canadian Constitution in 1982. The Dominion of Newfoundland similarly achieved partial independence under the Balfour Declaration and Statute of Westminster, but was re-absorbed into the United Kingdom in 1934. It was subsequently confederated with Canada in 1949.

The remaining European colonies in the Caribbean began to achieve peaceful independence well after World War II. Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago became independent in 1962, and Guyana and Barbados both achieved independence in 1966. In the 1970s, the Bahamas, Grenada, Dominica, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines all became independent of the United Kingdom, and Suriname became independent of the Netherlands. Belize, Antigua and Barbuda, and Saint Kitts and Nevis achieved independence from the United Kingdom in the 1980s.

Etymology and naming
Main article: Naming of the Americas
The earliest known use of the name America dates to 1507, where it was applied to what is now known as South America.[39] The scholarly consensus is that the name was derived from Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci.[40]

In modern English, North and South America are generally considered separate continents, and taken together are called the Americas in the plural, parallel to similar situations such as the Carolinas. When conceived as a unitary continent, the form is generally the continent of America in the singular. However, without a clarifying context, singular America in English commonly refers to the United States of America.[7]

Geography
Further information: Geography of North America and Geography of South America

Satellite photo of the Americas
Extent
The northernmost point of the Americas is Kaffeklubben Island, which is the most northerly point of land on Earth.[41] The southernmost point is the islands of Southern Thule, although they are sometimes considered part of Antarctica.[42] The mainland of the Americas is the world's longest north-to-south landmass. The distance between its two polar extremities, the Boothia Peninsula in northern Canada and Cape Froward in Chilean Patagonia, is roughly 14,000 km (8,700 mi).[43] The mainland's most westerly point is the end of the Seward Peninsula in Alaska; Attu Island, further off the Alaskan coast to the west, is considered the westernmost point of the Americas. Ponta do Seixas in northeastern Brazil forms the easternmost extremity of the mainland,[43] while Nordostrundingen, in Greenland, is the most easterly point of the continental shelf.

Geology
South America broke off from the west of the supercontinent Gondwana around 135 million years ago, forming its own continent.[44] Around 15 million years ago, the collision of the Caribbean Plate and the Pacific Plate resulted in the emergence of a series of volcanoes along the border that created a number of islands. The gaps in the archipelago of Central America filled in with material eroded off North America and South America, plus new land created by continued volcanism. By three million years ago, the continents of North America and South America were linked by the Isthmus of Panama, thereby forming the single landmass of the Americas.[45] The Great American Interchange resulted in many species being spread across the Americas, such as the cougar, porcupine, opossums, armadillos and hummingbirds.[46]

Topography

Aconcagua, in Argentina, is the highest peak in the Americas
The geography of the western Americas is dominated by the American cordillera, with the Andes running along the west coast of South America[47] and the Rocky Mountains and other North American Cordillera ranges running along the western side of North America.[48] The 2,300-kilometer-long (1,400 mi) Appalachian Mountains run along the east coast of North America from Alabama to Newfoundland.[49] North of the Appalachians, the Arctic Cordillera runs along the eastern coast of Canada.[50]

The ranges with the highest peaks are the Andes and Rocky Mountain ranges. Although high peaks exist in the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Range, on average there are not as many reaching a height greater than 14,000 feet (4,300 m). In North America, the greatest number of fourteeners are in the United States, and more specifically in the U.S. state of Colorado. The highest peaks of the Americas are located in the Andes, with Aconcagua of Argentina being the highest; in North America Denali (Mount McKinley) in the U.S. state of Alaska is the tallest.

Between its coastal mountain ranges, North America has vast flat areas. The Interior Plains spread over much of the continent, with low relief.[51] The Canadian Shield covers almost 5 million km² of North America and is generally quite flat.[52] Similarly, the north-east of South America is covered by the flat Amazon Basin.[53] The Brazilian Highlands on the east coast are fairly smooth but show some variations in landform, while farther south the Gran Chaco and Pampas are broad lowlands.[54]

Climate

Climate zones of the Americas in the Köppen climate classification system.
The climate of the Americas varies significantly from region to region. Tropical rainforest climate occurs in the latitudes of the Amazon, American cloud forests, Florida and Darien Gap. In the Rocky Mountains and Andes, a similar climate is observed. Often the higher altitudes of these mountains are snow-capped.

Southeastern North America is well known for its occurrence of tornadoes and hurricanes, of which the vast majority of tornadoes occur in the United States' Tornado Alley.[55] Often parts of the Caribbean are exposed to the violent effects of hurricanes. These weather systems are formed by the collision of dry, cool air from Canada and wet, warm air from the Atlantic.

Hydrology
With coastal mountains and interior plains, the Americas have several large river basins that drain the continents. The largest river basin in North America is that of the Mississippi, covering the second largest watershed on the planet.[56] The Mississippi-Missouri river system drains most of 31 states of the U.S., most of the Great Plains, and large areas between the Rocky and Appalachian mountains. This river is the fourth longest in the world and tenth most powerful in the world.

In North America, to the east of the Appalachian Mountains, there are no major rivers but rather a series of rivers and streams that flow east with their terminus in the Atlantic Ocean, such as the Hudson River, Saint John River, and Savannah River. A similar instance arises with central Canadian rivers that drain into Hudson Bay; the largest being the Churchill River. On the west coast of North America, the main rivers are the Colorado River, Columbia River, Yukon River, Fraser River, and Sacramento River.

The Colorado River drains much of the Southern Rockies and parts of the Great Basin and Range Province. The river flows approximately 1,450 miles (2,330 km) into the Gulf of California,[57] during which over time it has carved out natural phenomena such as the Grand Canyon and created phenomena such as the Salton Sea. The Columbia is a large river, 1,243 miles (2,000 km) long, in central western North America and is the most powerful river on the West Coast of the Americas. In the far northwest of North America, the Yukon drains much of the Alaskan peninsula and flows 1,980 miles (3,190 km)[58] from parts of Yukon and the Northwest Territory to the Pacific. Draining to the Arctic Ocean of Canada, the Mackenzie River drains waters from the Arctic Great Lakes of Arctic Canada, as opposed to the Saint-Lawrence River that drains the Great Lakes of Southern Canada into the Atlantic Ocean. The Mackenzie River is the largest in Canada and drains 1,805,200 square kilometers (697,000 sq mi).[59]

The largest river basin in South America is that of the Amazon, which has the highest volume flow of any river on Earth.[60] The second largest watershed of South America is that of the Paraná River, which covers about 2.5 million km².[61]

Ecology
North America and South America began to develop a shared population of flora and fauna around 2.5 million years ago, when continental drift brought the two continents into contact via the Isthmus of Panama. Initially, the exchange of biota was roughly equal, with North American genera migrating into South America in about the same proportions as South American genera migrated into North America. This exchange is known as the Great American Interchange. The exchange became lopsided after roughly a million years, with the total spread of South American genera into North America far more limited in scope than the spread on North American genera into South America.[62]

Countries and territories
See also: List of countries and territories in the Americas
There are 35 sovereign states in the Americas, as well as an autonomous country of Denmark, three overseas departments of France, three overseas collectivities of France,[63] and one uninhabited territory of France, eight overseas territories of the United Kingdom, three constituent countries of the Netherlands, three public bodies of the Netherlands, two unincorporated territories of the United States, and one uninhabited territory of the United States.[64]

Country or territory Area
(km²)[65] Population
[note 1] Pop.
density
(per km²) Languages (official in bold) Capital GDP (GDP (Nominal))
USD in 2014[1][66] GDP (PPP)
USD in 2014[1][67]
Anguilla (United Kingdom) 91 13,452 164.8 English The Valley $175,400,000
Antigua and Barbuda 442 86,295 199.1 Creole,[68] English St. John's $1,605,000,000
Argentina 2,766,890 42,669,500 14.3 Spanish Buenos Aires $540,197,000,000 $947,573,000,000
Aruba (Netherlands) 180 101,484 594.4 Papiamentu, Spanish,[69] Dutch Oranjestad $2,516,000,000
Bahamas, The 13,943 351,461 24.5 Creole,[70] English Nassau $11,240,000,000
Barbados 430 285,000 595.3 Bajan,[71] English Bridgetown $7,169,000,000
Belize 22,966 349,728 13.4 Spanish, Kriol, English[72] Belmopan $3,048,000,000
Bermuda (United Kingdom) 54 64,237 1,203.7 English Hamilton $5,600,000,000
Bolivia 1,098,580 10,027,254 8.4 Spanish and 36 indigenous languages La Paz and Sucre [73] $34,176,000,000 $69,963,000,000
Bonaire (Netherlands) 294 12,093 41.1 Papiamentu, Spanish, Dutch[74] Kralendijk
Brazil 8,514,877 203,106,000 23.6 Portuguese Brasília $2,346,118,000,000 $3,263,866,000,000
British Virgin Islands (United Kingdom) 151 29,537 152.3 English Road Town $500,000,000
Canada 9,984,670 35,427,524 3.4 English, French Ottawa $1,786,655,000,000 $1,566,925,000,000
Cayman Islands (United Kingdom) 264 55,456 212.1 English George Town $2,250,000,000
Chile[75] 756,950 17,773,000 22 Spanish Santiago $258,062,000,000 $396,923,000,000
Clipperton Island (France) 6[76] 0[77] 0.0 Uninhabited — $0
Colombia 1,138,910 47,757,000 40 Spanish Bogotá $377,740,000,000 $638,357,000,000
Costa Rica 51,100 4,667,096 89.6 Spanish San José $49,553,000,000 $70,974,000,000
Cuba 109,886 11,167,325 102.0 Spanish Havana $77,150,000,000 $234,193,000,000
Curaçao (Netherlands) 444 150,563 317.1 Papiamentu, Dutch[74] Willemstad $2,838,000,000
Dominica 751 71,293 89.2 French Patois, English[78] Roseau $1,018,000,000
Dominican Republic 48,671 10,378,267 207.3 Spanish Santo Domingo $63,969,000,000 $138,007,000,000
Ecuador 283,560 15,819,400 53.8 Spanish, Quechua[79] Quito $100,543,000,000 $180,493,000,000
El Salvador 21,041 6,401,240 293.0 Spanish San Salvador $25,220,000,000 $50,944,000,000
Falkland Islands (United Kingdom)[80] 12,173 3,000 0.26 English Stanley $164,500,000
French Guiana (France) 91,000 237,549 2.7 French Cayenne
Greenland (Denmark) 2,166,086 56,483 0.026 Greenlandic, Danish Nuuk (Godthåb) $2,133,000,000
Grenada 344 103,328 302.3 English St. George's $1,467,000,000
Guadeloupe (France) 1,628 405,739 246.7 French Basse-Terre
Guatemala 108,889 15,806,675 128.8 Spanish, Garifuna and 23 Mayan languages Guatemala City $58,728,000,000 $119,375,000,000
Guyana 214,999 784,894 3.5 English Georgetown $6,256,000,000
Haiti 27,750 10,745,665 361.5 Creole, French Port-au-Prince $13,150,000,000
Honduras 112,492 8,555,072 66.4 Spanish Tegucigalpa $19,385,000,000 $36,487,000,000
Jamaica 10,991 2,717,991 247.4 Patois, English Kingston $25,620,000,000
Martinique (France) 1,128 392,291 352.6 Patois,[81] French Fort-de-France
Mexico 1,964,375 119,713,203 57.1 Spanish, 68 indigenous languages Mexico City $1,282,720,000,000 $2,125,257,000,000
Montserrat (United Kingdom) 102 4,922 58.8 Creole English, English[82] Plymouth; Brades[83] $43,780,000
Navassa Island (United States) 5[76] 0[77] 0.0 Uninhabited — $0
Nicaragua 130,373 6,071,045 44.1 Spanish Managua $27,100,000,000
Panama 75,417 3,405,813 45.8 Spanish Panama City $46,213,000,000 $80,811,000,000
Paraguay 406,750 6,783,374 15.6 Guaraní, Spanish Asunción $30,985,000,000 $58,280,000,000
Peru 1,285,220 30,814,175 22 Spanish, Quechua, Aymara Lima $202,903,000,000 $371,347,000,000
Puerto Rico (United States) 8,870 3,615,086 448.9 Spanish, English San Juan $103,135,000,000 $125,630,000,000
Saba (Netherlands) 13 1,537[84] 118.2 English, Dutch The Bottom
Saint Barthélemy (France) 21[76] 8,938[77] 354.7 French Gustavia
Saint Kitts and Nevis 261 55,000 199.2 English Basseterre $946,300,000
Saint Lucia 539 180,000 319.1 English, French Creole Castries $2,233,000,000
Saint Martin (France) 54[76] 36,979 552.2 French Marigot $561,500,000
Flag of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon.svg Saint Pierre and Miquelon (France) 242 6,081 24.8 French Saint-Pierre $215,300,000
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 389 109,000 280.2 English Kingstown $1,312,000,000
Sint Eustatius (Netherlands) 21 2,739[84] 130.4 Dutch, English Oranjestad
Sint Maarten (Netherlands) 34 37,429 1,176.7 English, Spanish, Dutch Philipsburg $798,300,000
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands South Georgia and
South Sandwich Islands (UK)[85] 3,093 20 0.01 English Grytviken
Suriname 163,270 534,189 3 Dutch and others[86] Paramaribo $6,874,000,000
Trinidad and Tobago 5,130 1,328,019 261.0 English Port of Spain $24,434,000,000 $40,832,000,000
Turks and Caicos Islands (UK) 948 31,458 34.8 Creole English, English[87] Cockburn Town $632,000,000
United States[note 2] 9,629,091 320,206,000 34.2 English, Spanish Washington, D.C. $17,419,000,000,000 $17,419,000,000,000
U.S. Virgin Islands (United States) 347 106,405 317.0 English, Spanish Charlotte Amalie
Uruguay 176,220 3,286,314 19.4 Spanish Montevideo $57,471,000,000 $71,414,000,000
Venezuela 916,445 30,206,307 30.2 Spanish and 40 indigenous languages Caracas $509,964,000,000 $538,932,000,000
Total 42,320,985 973,186,925 21.9 $24,864,000,000,000
Demography
Population
Further information: List of sovereign states and dependent territories in the Americas by population
The total population of the Americas is about 951 million people and is divided as follows:[citation needed]

North America: 565 million (includes Central America and the Caribbean)
South America: 386 million
Largest urban centers
See also: Largest cities in the Americas and List of metropolitan areas in the Americas by population
There are three urban centers that each hold titles for being the largest population area based on the three main demographic concepts:[88]

City proper
A city proper is the locality with legally fixed boundaries and an administratively recognized urban status that is usually characterized by some form of local government.[89][90][91][92][93]
Urban area
An urban area is characterized by higher population density and vast human features in comparison to areas surrounding it. Urban areas may be cities, towns or conurbations, but the term is not commonly extended to rural settlements such as villages and hamlets. Urban areas are created and further developed by the process of urbanization and do not include large swaths of rural land, as do metropolitan areas.
Metropolitan area
Unlike an urban area, a metropolitan area includes not only the urban area, but also satellite cities plus intervening rural land that is socio-economically connected to the urban core city, typically by employment ties through commuting, with the urban core city being the primary labor market.
In accordance with these definitions, the three largest population centers in the Americas are: Mexico City, anchor to the largest metropolitan area in the Americas; New York City, anchor to the largest urban area in the Americas; and São Paulo, the largest city proper in the Americas. All three cities maintain Alpha classification and large scale influence. Mexico City is the largest city in the Americas and the Western Hemisphere and Northern Hemisphere.

Urban Centers within the Americas

São Paulo – Largest city proper in the Americas with a population of 10,886,534 in 2010.

New York City – Largest urban area in the Americas with a population of 18,351,295 in 2010.

Mexico City – Largest metropolitan area in the Americas with a population of 20,116,842 in 2010.

Buenos Aires – Fourth largest metropolitan area in the Americas, with a population of 15,024,000 in 2014.[94]
Country City City Population Metro Area Population
Mexico Mexico City 8,864,000[95] 21,339,781[96]
Brazil São Paulo 11,821,876[97] 20,935,204[citation needed]
United States New York City 8,405,837[98] 19,949,502[99]
Argentina Buenos Aires 2,776,138[100] 15,024,000[94]
United States Los Angeles 3,928,864[101] 13,131,431[102]
Ethnology

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The population of the Americas is made up of the descendants of four large ethnic groups and their combinations.

The Indigenous peoples of the Americas, being Amerindians, Inuit, and Aleuts.
Those of European ancestry, mainly Spanish, British and Irish, Portuguese, Italian, French, Polish, German, Dutch, Russians and Scandinavians.
Those of African ancestry, mainly of West African descent.
Asians, that is, those of Eastern, South, and Southeast Asian ancestry.
Mestizos (Metis people in Canada), those of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry.
Mulattoes, people of mixed African and European ancestry.
Zambos (Spanish) or Cafusos (Portuguese), those of mixed African and Amerindian ancestry.
The majority of the population live in Latin America, named for its predominant cultures, rooted in Latin Europe (including the two dominant languages, Spanish and Portuguese, both Romance languages), more specifically in the Iberian nations of Portugal and Spain (hence the use of the term Ibero-America as a synonym). Latin America is typically contrasted with Anglo-America, where English, a Germanic language, is prevalent, and which comprises Canada (with the exception of francophone Canada rooted in Latin Europe [France]—see Québec and Acadia) and the United States. Both countries are located in North America, with cultures deriving predominantly from Anglo-Saxon and other Germanic roots.

Religion
Further information: Religion in Latin America, Religion in North America, Christianity in the Americas and Islam in the Americas
The most prevalent faiths in the Americas are as follows:

Christianity (86 percent)[103]
Roman Catholicism: Practiced by 69 percent[104] of the Latin American population, 81 percent[104] in Mexico and 61 percent[104] in Brazil whose Roman Catholic population of 123 million is the greatest of any nation's; approximately 24 percent of the United States' population[105] and about 39 percent of Canada's.[106]
Protestantism: Practiced mostly in the United States, where half of the population are Protestant, and Canada, with slightly more than a quarter of the population; there is a growing contingent of Evangelical and Pentecostal movements in predominantly Catholic Latin America.[107]
Eastern Orthodoxy: Found mostly in the United States (1 percent)and Canada; this Christian group is growing faster than many other Christian groups in Canada and now represents roughly 3 percent of the Canadian population.[106]
Non-denominational Christians and other Christians (some 1,000 different Christian denominations and sects practiced in the Americas
Irreligion: About 12 Percent, including atheists and agnostics, as well as those who profess some form of spirituality but do not identify themselves as members of any organized religion)
Islam: Together, Muslims constitute about 1 percent of the North American population and 0.3 percent of all Latin Americans. It is practiced by 3 percent [106] of Canadians and 0.6 percent of the U.S. population.[105] Argentina has the largest Muslim population in Latin America with up to 600,000 persons, or 1.9 percent of the population.[108]
Judaism (practiced by 2 percent of North Americans—approximately 2.5 percent of the U.S. population and 1.2 percent of Canadians[109]—and 0.23 percent of Latin Americans—Argentina has the largest Jewish population in Latin America with 200,000 members)[110]
Other faiths include Buddhism; Hinduism; Sikhism; Bahá'í Faith; a wide variety of indigenous religions, many of which can be categorized as animistic; new age religions and many African and African-derived religions. Syncretic faiths can also be found throughout the Americas.

Religious Demographics Accordign to 2010 Census/estimates in each Country
Country Christians Catholics Protestants Atheists/Agnostics Others
Argentina [111] 86.2% 76.5% 09.7% 11.3% 02.5%
Bolivia 95.3% 73.7% 21.6% 03.7% 01.0%
Brazil [112] 86.8% 64.6% 22.2% 08.4% 04.8%
Canada [106] 62.6% 38.7% 23.9% 28.5% 08.9%
Chile [113] 76.0% 60.0% 16.0% 21.0% 03.0%
Colombia 93.9% 80.3% 13.6% 05.2% 01.7%
Costa Rica [114] 84.3% 70.5% 13.8% 11.3% 04.3%
Dominican Republic 87.1% 68.3% 18.8% 10.6% 02.2%
Ecuador 95.6% 87.8% 07.7% 03.5% 01.0%
El Salvador 75.5% 45.8% 29.7% 24.3% 01.2%
Guatemala [115] 79.3% 47.6% 31.7% 18.3% 02.4%
Honduras 83.0% 47.9% 35.1% 14.3% 02.7%
Mexico[116] 92.2% 82.7% 08.7% 04.9% 02.9%
Nicaragua [117] 81.1% 54.3% 26.8% 16.8% 02.1%
Panama 90.0% 75.0% 15.0% 07.0% 03.0%
Paraguay 96.8% 90.4% 06.4% 01.4% 01.8%
Peru [118] 96.7% 81.3% 12.5% 01.9% 01.4%
Uruguay 52.0% 39.7% 12.3% 46.8% 01.2%
United States [119] 79.9% 25.9% 54.0% 15.2% 05.0%
Venezuela [120] 89.0% 72.0% 17.0% 08.0% 03.0%
Languages
Main articles: Indigenous languages of the Americas, Languages of North America and Languages of South America

Languages spoken in the Americas
Various languages are spoken in the Americas. Some are of European origin, others are spoken by indigenous peoples or are the mixture of various idioms like the different creoles.

The most widely spoken language in the Americas is Spanish.[121] The dominant language of Latin America is Spanish, though the most populous nation in Latin America, Brazil, speaks Portuguese. Small enclaves of French-, Dutch- and English-speaking regions also exist in Latin America, notably in French Guiana, Suriname, and Belize and Guyana respectively, and Haitian Creole, of French origin, is dominant in the nation of Haiti. Native languages are more prominent in Latin America than in Anglo-America, with Nahuatl, Quechua, Aymara and Guaraní as the most common. Various other native languages are spoken with less frequency across both Anglo-America and Latin America. Creole languages other than Haitian Creole are also spoken in parts of Latin America.

The dominant language of Anglo-America is English. French is also official in Canada, where it is the predominant language in Quebec and an official language in New Brunswick along with English. It is also an important language in Louisiana, and in parts of New Hampshire, Maine, and Vermont. Spanish has kept an ongoing presence in the Southwestern United States, which formed part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, especially in California and New Mexico, where a distinct variety of Spanish spoken since the 17th century has survived. It has more recently become widely spoken in other parts of the United States due to heavy immigration from Latin America. High levels of immigration in general have brought great linguistic diversity to Anglo-America, with over 300 languages known to be spoken in the United States alone, but most languages are spoken only in small enclaves and by relatively small immigrant groups.

The nations of Guyana, Suriname, and Belize are generally considered[by whom?] not to fall into either Anglo-America or Latin America due to lingual differences with Latin America, geographic differences with Anglo-America, and cultural and historical differences with both regions; English is the primary language of Guyana and Belize, and Dutch is the official and written language of Suriname.

Most of the non-native languages have, to different degrees, evolved differently from the mother country, but are usually still mutually intelligible. Some have combined, however, which has even resulted in completely new languages, such as Papiamento, which is a combination of Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch (representing the respective colonizers), native Arawak, various African languages, and, more recently English. The lingua franca Portuñol, a mixture of Portuguese and Spanish, is spoken in the border regions of Brazil and neighboring Spanish-speaking countries.[122] More specifically, Riverense Portuñol is spoken by around 100,000 people in the border regions of Brazil and Uruguay. Due to immigration, there are many communities where other languages are spoken from all parts of the world, especially in the United States, Brazil, Argentina, Canada, Chile, Costa Rica and Uruguay—very important destinations for immigrants.[123][124][125]

Terminology
Subdivisions of the Americas
Map Legend
LocationNSAm.png
North America (NA)
South America (SA)
May be included in
either NA or SA
LocationNSAm2.png
North America (NA)
May be included in NA
Central America
Caribbean
South America
LocationNSAm3.png
North America (NA)
May be included in NA
Northern America

Middle America (MA)
Caribbean (may be
included in MA)
South America (SA)
May be included
in MA or SA
LocationNSAngloLatin.png
Anglo-America (A-A)
May be included in A-A
Latin America (LA)
May be included in LA
Further information: Americas (terminology)
English
Main article: American (word)
Speakers of English generally refer to the landmasses of North America and South America as the Americas, the Western Hemisphere, or the New World.[126] The adjective American may be used to indicate something pertains to the Americas,[2] but this term is primarily used in English to indicate something pertaining to the United States.[2][127][128] Some non-ambiguous alternatives exist, such as the adjective Pan-American,[129] or New Worlder as a demonym for a resident of the Americas.[3] Use of America in the hemispherical sense is sometimes retained, or can occur when translated from other languages.[130] For example, the Association of National Olympic Committees (ANOC) in Paris maintains a single continental association for "America", represented by one of the five Olympic rings.[131]

The English-language use of American as the demonym for citizens of the United States has caused offense to some from Latin America[132] who may identify themselves as Americans and feel that using the term solely for the United States misappropriates it.[133] To avoid this usage, they prefer constructed terms in their languages derived from "United States" or even "North America".[128][134][135] In Canada, its southern neighbor is often referred to as "the United States", "the U.S.A.", or (informally) "the States", while U.S. citizens are generally referred to as Americans.[128] Most Canadians resent being referred to as Americans,[128] but some are said to have protested against the use of American as a national demonym.[128][136]

Spanish
In Spanish, América is a single continent composed of the subcontinents of Sudamérica and Norteamérica, the land bridge of Centroamérica, and the islands of the Antillas. Americano or americana in Spanish refers to a person from América in a similar way that europeo or europea refers to a person from Europa. The terms sudamericano/a, centroamericano/a, antillano/a and norteamericano/a can be used to more specifically refer to the location where a person may live.

Citizens of the United States of America are normally referred to by the term estadounidense (rough literal translation: "United Statesian") instead of americano or americana which is discouraged,[137][138] and the country's name itself is officially translated as Estados Unidos de América (United States of America), commonly abbreviated as Estados Unidos.[138] Also, the term norteamericano (North American) may refer to a citizen of the United States. This term is primarily used to refer to citizens of the United States, and less commonly to those of other North American countries.[137]

Portuguese
In Portuguese, América[139] is a single continent composed of América do Sul (South America), América Central (Central America) and América do Norte (North America).[140] It can be ambiguous, as América can be used to refer to the United States of America, but is avoided in print and formal environments.[141][142]

French
In French the word américain may be used for things relating to the Americas; however, similar to English, it is most often used for things relating to the United States. Panaméricain may be used as an adjective to refer to the Americas without ambiguity.[143] French speakers may use the noun Amérique to refer to the whole landmass as one continent, or two continents, Amérique du Nord and Amérique du Sud. In French, Amérique is also used to refer to the United States, making the term ambiguous. Similar to English usage, les Amériques or des Amériques is used to refer unambiguously to the Americas.

Dutch
In Dutch, the word Amerika mostly refers to the United States.[citation needed] Although the United States is equally often referred to as de Verenigde Staten ("the United States") or de VS ("the US"), Amerika relatively rarely refers to the Americas, but it is the only commonly used Dutch word for the Americas. This often leads to ambiguity; and to stress that something concerns the Americas as a whole, Dutch uses a combination, namely Noord- en Zuid-Amerika (North and South America).

Latin America is generally referred to as Latijns Amerika or Midden-Amerika for Central America.

The adjective Amerikaans is most often used for things or people relating to the United States. There are no alternative words to distinguish between things relating to the United States or to the Americas. Dutch uses the local alternative for things relating to elsewhere in the Americas, such as Argentijns for Argentine, etc.

Multinational organizations
The following is a list of multinational organizations in the Americas.

Alliance for Progress
American Capital of Culture
Andean Community of Nations
Association of Caribbean States
Bank of the South
Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas
Caribbean Community
CARICOM Single Market and Economy
Central American Common Market
Central American Parliament
Community of Latin American and Caribbean States
Contadora Group
Free Trade Area of the Americas
Latin American Free Trade Agreement
Latin American Parliament or (Parlatino)
List of Parliamentary Speakers in the Americas in 1984
Mercosur or Mercosul
North American Free Trade Agreement
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Organization of American States
Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States
Organization of Ibero-American States
Pan American Sports Organization
Regional Security System
Rio Group
School of the Americas
Summit of the Americas
Union of South American Nations
YOA Orchestra of the Americas
See also
Portal icon Geography portal
Portal icon North America portal
Portal icon South America portal
Amerrique Mountains
British North America
Columbia (name)
Conquistadors
Ethnic groups in Central America
List of former sovereign states
French America
La Merika
List of conflicts in the Americas
List of countries in the Americas by population
Middle America (Americas)
Monarchies in the Americas
New Sweden
Northern America
Pan-Americanism
Southern Cone
Notes
Jump up ^ See List of countries by population for references.
Jump up ^ Includes the US state of Hawaii, which is distant from the North American landmass in the Pacific Ocean and therefore more commonly associated with the other territories of Oceania.
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Jump up ^ Marjorie Fee and Janice MacAlpine, Oxford Guide to Canadian English Usage (2008) page 36 says "In Canada, American is used almost exclusively in reference to the United States and its citizens." Others, including The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary, The Canadian Oxford Dictionary, The Australian Oxford Dictionary and The Concise Oxford English Dictionary all specify both the Americas and the United States in their definition of "American".
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"Encyclopedia Britannica". Retrieved May 20, 2015. Western Hemisphere, Part of Earth comprising North and South America and the surrounding waters. Longitudes 20° W and 160° E are often considered its boundaries.

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Jump up ^ Includes Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean, a Chilean territory frequently reckoned in Oceania. Santiago is the administrative capital of Chile; Valparaíso is the site of legislative meetings.
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Jump up ^ Claimed by Argentina.
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Jump up ^ Due to ongoing activity of the Soufriere Hills volcano beginning in July 1995, much of Plymouth was destroyed and government offices were relocated to Brades. Plymouth remains the de jure capital.
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Jump up ^ Claimed by Argentina; the South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands in the South Atlantic Ocean are commonly associated with Antarctica (due to proximity) and have no permanent population, only hosting a periodic contingent of about 100 researchers and visitors.
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e "America." Oxford Guide to Canadian English Usage. (ISBN 0-19-541619-8) Fee, Margery and McAlpine, J., ed., 1997. Toronto: Oxford University Press; p. 36.
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Jump up ^ "America." Microsoft Encarta Dictionary. 2007. Microsoft. Archived October 31, 2009.
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Jump up ^ "American." The Oxford Companion to the English Language (ISBN 0-19-214183-X); McArthur, Tom, ed., 1992. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 35.
Jump up ^ "Estados Unidos". Diccionario panhispánico de dudas (in Spanish). Real Academia Española. October 2005. Retrieved November 30, 2010.
Jump up ^ de Ford, Miriam Allen (April 1927). "On the difficulty of indicating nativity in the United States". American Speech: 315.
^ Jump up to: a b Diccionario panhispánico de dudas:Norteamérica. Real Academia Española. 2005.
^ Jump up to: a b Diccionario panhispánico de dudas: Estados Unidos. Real Academia Española. 2005. "debe evitarse el empleo de americano para referirse exclusivamente a los habitantes de los Estados Unidos" ("the use of the term americano referring exclusively to the United States inhabitants must be avoided")
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Further reading
"Americas". The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online. 2006. New York: Columbia University Press.
"Americas". Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed. 1986. (ISBN 0-85229-434-4) Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Burchfield, R. W. 2004. Fowler's Modern English Usage. ISBN 0-19-861021-1 Oxford University Press.
Churchill, Ward A Little Matter of Genocide 1997 City Lights Books ISBN 0-87286-323-9
Fee, Margery and McAlpine, J. 1997. Oxford Guide to Canadian English Usage. (ISBN 0-19-541619-8) Toronto: Oxford University Press.
Kane, Katie Nits Make Lice: Drogheda, Sand Creek, and the Poetics of Colonial Extermination Cultural Critique, No. 42 (Spring, 1999), pp. 81–103 doi:10.2307/1354592
Pearsall, Judy and Trumble, Bill., ed. 2002. Oxford English Reference Dictionary, 2nd ed. (rev.) (ISBN 0-19-860652-4) Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
What's the difference between North, Latin, Central, Middle, South, Spanish and Anglo America? Geography at about.com.
External links
Look up americas in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to America.
United Nations population data by latest available Census: 2008–2009
Organization of American States
Council on Hemispheric Affairs
Wikisource-logo.svg Gannett, Henry; Ingersoll, Ernest; Winship, George Parker (1905). "America and others". New International Encyclopedia.
Coordinates: 19°N 96°W

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horse
https://www.google.de/search?client=opera&q=horse&sourceid=opera&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8

Horse
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Horse (disambiguation).
Horse
Two Nokota horses standing in open grassland with rolling hills and trees visible in the background.
Conservation status
Domesticated
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Perissodactyla
Family: Equidae
Genus: Equus
Species: E. ferus
Subspecies: E. f. caballus
Trinomial name
Equus ferus caballus
Linnaeus, 1758[1]
Synonyms
at least 48 published[2]

The horse (Equus ferus caballus)[2][3] is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus. It is an odd-toed ungulate mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature, Eohippus, into the large, single-toed animal of today. Humans began to domesticate horses around 4000 BC, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC. Horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses. These feral populations are not true wild horses, as this term is used to describe horses that have never been domesticated, such as the endangered Przewalski's horse, a separate subspecies, and the only remaining true wild horse. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behavior.

Horses' anatomy enables them to make use of speed to escape predators and they have a well-developed sense of balance and a strong fight-or-flight response. Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait: horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. Female horses, called mares, carry their young for approximately 11 months, and a young horse, called a foal, can stand and run shortly following birth. Most domesticated horses begin training under saddle or in harness between the ages of two and four. They reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years.

Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on general temperament: spirited "hot bloods" with speed and endurance; "cold bloods", such as draft horses and some ponies, suitable for slow, heavy work; and "warmbloods", developed from crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods, often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding purposes, particularly in Europe. There are more than 300 breeds of horse in the world today, developed for many different uses.

Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions and non-competitive recreational pursuits, as well as in working activities such as police work, agriculture, entertainment, and therapy. Horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed, using many different styles of equipment and methods of control. Many products are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of pregnant mares. Humans provide domesticated horses with food, water and shelter, as well as attention from specialists such as veterinarians and farriers.

Contents [hide]
1 Biology
1.1 Lifespan and life stages
1.2 Size and measurement
1.2.1 Ponies
1.3 Genetics
1.4 Colors and markings
1.5 Reproduction and development
1.6 Anatomy
1.6.1 Skeletal system
1.6.2 Hooves
1.6.3 Teeth
1.6.4 Digestion
1.6.5 Senses
1.7 Movement
1.8 Behavior
1.8.1 Intelligence and learning
1.8.2 Temperament
1.8.3 Sleep patterns
2 Taxonomy and evolution
2.1 Wild species surviving into modern times
2.2 Other modern equids
3 Domestication
3.1 Feral populations
3.2 Breeds
4 Interaction with humans
4.1 Sport
4.2 Work
4.3 Entertainment and culture
4.4 Therapeutic use
4.5 Warfare
4.6 Products
4.7 Care
5 See also
6 References
7 Sources
8 Further reading
9 External links
Biology
Main article: Equine anatomy
Diagram of a horse with some parts labeled.
Points of a horse[4][5]
Specific terms and specialized language are used to describe equine anatomy, different life stages, colors and breeds.

Lifespan and life stages
Depending on breed, management and environment, the modern domestic horse has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years.[6] Uncommonly, a few animals live into their 40s and, occasionally, beyond.[7] The oldest verifiable record was "Old Billy", a 19th-century horse that lived to the age of 62.[6] In modern times, Sugar Puff, who had been listed in Guinness World Records as the world's oldest living pony, died in 2007 at age 56.[8]

Regardless of a horse or pony's actual birth date, for most competition purposes a year is added to its age each January 1 of each year in the Northern Hemisphere[6][9] and each August 1 in the Southern Hemisphere.[10] The exception is in endurance riding, where the minimum age to compete is based on the animal's actual calendar age.[11]

The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages:

Colt: A male horse under the age of four.[12] A common terminology error is to call any young horse a "colt", when the term actually only refers to young male horses.[13]
Filly: A female horse under the age of four.[14]
Foal: A horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal is sometimes called a suckling and a foal that has been weaned is called a weanling.[14] Most domesticated foals are weaned at five to seven months of age, although foals can be weaned at four months with no adverse physical effects.[15]
Gelding: A castrated male horse of any age.[14]
Mare: A female horse four years old and older.[16]
Stallion: A non-castrated male horse four years old and older.[17] The term "horse" is sometimes used colloquially to refer specifically to a stallion.[18]
Yearling: A horse of either sex that is between one and two years old.[19]
In horse racing, these definitions may differ: For example, in the British Isles, Thoroughbred horse racing defines colts and fillies as less than five years old.[20] However, Australian Thoroughbred racing defines colts and fillies as less than four years old.[21]

Size and measurement
The height of horses is usually measured at the highest point of the withers, where the neck meets the back.[22] This point is used because it is a stable point of the anatomy, unlike the head or neck, which move up and down in relation to the body of the horse.

In English-speaking countries, the height of horses is often stated in units of hands and inches: one hand is equal to 4 inches (101.6 mm). The height is expressed as the number of full hands, followed by a point, then the number of additional inches, and ending with the abbreviation "h" or "hh" (for "hands high"). Thus, a horse described as "15.2 h" is 15 hands plus 2 inches, for a total of 62 inches (157.5 cm) in height.[23]

A large brown horse is chasing a small horse in a pasture.
Size varies greatly among horse breeds, as with this full-sized horse and small pony.
The size of horses varies by breed, but also is influenced by nutrition. Light riding horses usually range in height from 14 to 16 hands (56 to 64 inches, 142 to 163 cm) and can weigh from 380 to 550 kilograms (840 to 1,210 lb).[24] Larger riding horses usually start at about 15.2 hands (62 inches, 157 cm) and often are as tall as 17 hands (68 inches, 173 cm), weighing from 500 to 600 kilograms (1,100 to 1,320 lb).[25] Heavy or draft horses are usually at least 16 hands (64 inches, 163 cm) high and can be as tall as 18 hands (72 inches, 183 cm) high. They can weigh from about 700 to 1,000 kilograms (1,540 to 2,200 lb).[26]

The largest horse in recorded history was probably a Shire horse named Mammoth, who was born in 1848. He stood 21.2 1⁄4 hands (86.25 inches, 219 cm) high and his peak weight was estimated at 1,524 kilograms (3,360 lb).[27] The current record holder for the world's smallest horse is Thumbelina, a fully mature miniature horse affected by dwarfism. She is 17 in (43 cm) tall and weighs 57 lb (26 kg).[28]

Ponies
Main article: Pony
Ponies are taxonomically the same animals as horses. The distinction between a horse and pony is commonly drawn on the basis of height, especially for competition purposes. However, height alone is not dispositive; the difference between horses and ponies may also include aspects of phenotype, including conformation and temperament.

The traditional standard for height of a horse or a pony at maturity is 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm). An animal 14.2 h or over is usually considered to be a horse and one less than 14.2 h a pony,[29] but there are many exceptions to the traditional standard. In Australia, ponies are considered to be those under 14 hands (56 inches, 142 cm),[30] For competition in the Western division of the United States Equestrian Federation, the cutoff is 14.1 hands (57 inches, 145 cm)[31] The International Federation for Equestrian Sports, the world governing body for horse sport, uses metric measurements and defines a pony as being any horse measuring less than 148 centimetres (58.27 in) at the withers without shoes, which is just over 14.2 h, and 149 centimetres (58.66 in), or just over 14.2½ h, with shoes.[32]

Height is not the sole criterion for distinguishing horses from ponies. Breed registries for horses that typically produce individuals both under and over 14.2 h consider all animals of that breed to be horses regardless of their height.[33] Conversely, some pony breeds may have features in common with horses, and individual animals may occasionally mature at over 14.2 h, but are still considered to be ponies.[34]

Ponies often exhibit thicker manes, tails, and overall coat. They also have proportionally shorter legs, wider barrels, heavier bone, shorter and thicker necks, and short heads with broad foreheads. They may have calmer temperaments than horses and also a high level of intelligence that may or may not be used to cooperate with human handlers.[29] Small size, by itself, is not an exclusive determinant. For example, the Shetland pony which averages 10 hands (40 inches, 102 cm), is considered a pony.[29] Conversely, breeds such as the Falabella and other miniature horses, which can be no taller than 30 inches (76 cm), are classified by their registries as very small horses, not ponies.[35]

Genetics
Horses have 64 chromosomes.[36] The horse genome was sequenced in 2007. It contains 2.7 billion DNA base pairs,[37] which is larger than the dog genome, but smaller than the human genome or the bovine genome.[38] The map is available to researchers.[39]

Colors and markings
Two horses in a field. The one on the left is a dark brown with black mane and tail. The one on the right is a light red all over.
Bay (left) and chestnut (sometimes called "sorrel") are two of the most common coat colors, seen in almost all breeds.
Main articles: Equine coat color, Equine coat color genetics and Horse markings
Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings, described by a specialized vocabulary. Often, a horse is classified first by its coat color, before breed or sex.[40] Horses of the same color may be distinguished from one another by white markings,[41] which, along with various spotting patterns, are inherited separately from coat color.[42]

Many genes that create horse coat colors and patterns have been identified. Current genetic tests can identify at least 13 different alleles influencing coat color,[43] and research continues to discover new genes linked to specific traits. The basic coat colors of chestnut and black are determined by the gene controlled by the Melanocortin 1 receptor,[44] also known as the "extension gene" or "red factor,"[43] as its recessive form is "red" (chestnut) and its dominant form is black.[45] Additional genes control suppression of black color to point coloration that results in a bay, spotting patterns such as pinto or leopard, dilution genes such as palomino or dun, as well as graying, and all the other factors that create the many possible coat colors found in horses.[43]

Horses which have a white coat color are often mislabeled; a horse that looks "white" is usually a middle-aged or older gray. Grays are born a darker shade, get lighter as they age, but usually keep black skin underneath their white hair coat (with the exception of pink skin under white markings). The only horses properly called white are born with a predominantly white hair coat and pink skin, a fairly rare occurrence.[45] Different and unrelated genetic factors can produce white coat colors in horses, including several different alleles of dominant white and the sabino-1 gene.[46] However, there are no "albino" horses, defined as having both pink skin and red eyes.[47]

Reproduction and development
Main article: Horse breeding
Gestation lasts approximately 340 days, with an average range 320–370 days,[48] and usually results in one foal; twins are rare.[49] Horses are a precocial species, and foals are capable of standing and running within a short time following birth.[50] Foals are usually born in the spring. The estrous cycle of a mare occurs roughly every 19–22 days and occurs from early spring into autumn. Most mares enter an anestrus period during the winter and thus do not cycle in this period.[51] Foals are generally weaned from their mothers between four and six months of age.[52]

Horses, particularly colts, sometimes are physically capable of reproduction at about 18 months, but domesticated horses are rarely allowed to breed before the age of three, especially females.[53] Horses four years old are considered mature, although the skeleton normally continues to develop until the age of six; maturation also depends on the horse's size, breed, sex, and quality of care. Larger horses have larger bones; therefore, not only do the bones take longer to form bone tissue, but the epiphyseal plates are larger and take longer to convert from cartilage to bone. These plates convert after the other parts of the bones, and are crucial to development.[54]

Depending on maturity, breed, and work expected, horses are usually put under saddle and trained to be ridden between the ages of two and four.[55] Although Thoroughbred race horses are put on the track as young as the age of two in some countries,[56] horses specifically bred for sports such as dressage are generally not put under saddle until they are three or four years old, because their bones and muscles are not solidly developed.[57] For endurance riding competition, horses are not deemed mature enough to compete until they are a full 60 calendar months (five years) old.[11]

Anatomy
Main articles: Equine anatomy, Muscular system of the horse, Respiratory system of the horse and Circulatory system of the horse
Skeletal system
Main article: Skeletal system of the horse
Diagram of a horse skeleton with major parts labeled.
The skeletal system of a modern horse
The horse skeleton averages 205 bones.[58] A significant difference between the horse skeleton and that of a human is the lack of a collarbone—the horse's forelimbs are attached to the spinal column by a powerful set of muscles, tendons, and ligaments that attach the shoulder blade to the torso. The horse's legs and hooves are also unique structures. Their leg bones are proportioned differently from those of a human. For example, the body part that is called a horse's "knee" is actually made up of the carpal bones that correspond to the human wrist. Similarly, the hock contains bones equivalent to those in the human ankle and heel. The lower leg bones of a horse correspond to the bones of the human hand or foot, and the fetlock (incorrectly called the "ankle") is actually the proximal sesamoid bones between the cannon bones (a single equivalent to the human metacarpal or metatarsal bones) and the proximal phalanges, located where one finds the "knuckles" of a human. A horse also has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks, only skin, hair, bone, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, and the assorted specialized tissues that make up the hoof.[59]

Hooves
Main articles: Horse hoof, Horseshoe and Farrier
The critical importance of the feet and legs is summed up by the traditional adage, "no foot, no horse".[60] The horse hoof begins with the distal phalanges, the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the toe, surrounded by cartilage and other specialized, blood-rich soft tissues such as the laminae. The exterior hoof wall and horn of the sole is made of keratin, the same material as a human fingernail.[61] The end result is that a horse, weighing on average 500 kilograms (1,100 lb),[62] travels on the same bones as would a human on tiptoe.[63] For the protection of the hoof under certain conditions, some horses have horseshoes placed on their feet by a professional farrier. The hoof continually grows, and in most domesticated horses needs to be trimmed (and horseshoes reset, if used) every five to eight weeks,[64] though the hooves of horses in the wild wear down and regrow at a rate suitable for their terrain.

Teeth
Main article: Horse teeth
Horses are adapted to grazing. In an adult horse, there are 12 incisors at the front of the mouth, adapted to biting off the grass or other vegetation. There are 24 teeth adapted for chewing, the premolars and molars, at the back of the mouth. Stallions and geldings have four additional teeth just behind the incisors, a type of canine teeth called "tushes". Some horses, both male and female, will also develop one to four very small vestigial teeth in front of the molars, known as "wolf" teeth, which are generally removed because they can interfere with the bit. There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars where the bit rests directly on the gums, or "bars" of the horse's mouth when the horse is bridled.[65]

An estimate of a horse's age can be made from looking at its teeth. The teeth continue to erupt throughout life and are worn down by grazing. Therefore, the incisors show changes as the horse ages; they develop a distinct wear pattern, changes in tooth shape, and changes in the angle at which the chewing surfaces meet. This allows a very rough estimate of a horse's age, although diet and veterinary care can also affect the rate of tooth wear.[6]

Digestion
Main articles: Equine digestive system and Equine nutrition
Horses are herbivores with a digestive system adapted to a forage diet of grasses and other plant material, consumed steadily throughout the day. Therefore, compared to humans, they have a relatively small stomach but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A 450-kilogram (990 lb) horse will eat 7 to 11 kilograms (15 to 24 lb) of food per day and, under normal use, drink 38 to 45 litres (8.4 to 9.9 imp gal; 10 to 12 US gal) of water. Horses are not ruminants, they have only one stomach, like humans, but unlike humans, they can utilize cellulose, a major component of grass. Horses are hindgut fermenters, Cellulose fermentation by symbiotic bacteria occurs in the cecum, or "water gut", which food goes through before reaching the large intestine. Horses cannot vomit, so digestion problems can quickly cause colic, a leading cause of death.[66]

Senses
Close up of a horse eye, with is dark brown with lashes on the top eyelid
A horse's eye
See also: Equine vision
The horses' senses are based on their status as prey animals, where they must be aware of their surroundings at all times.[67] They have the largest eyes of any land mammal,[68] and are lateral-eyed, meaning that their eyes are positioned on the sides of their heads.[69] This means that horses have a range of vision of more than 350°, with approximately 65° of this being binocular vision and the remaining 285° monocular vision.[68] Horses have excellent day and night vision, but they have two-color, or dichromatic vision; their color vision is somewhat like red-green color blindness in humans, where certain colors, especially red and related colors, appear as a shade of green.[70]

Their sense of smell, while much better than that of humans, is not quite as good as that of a dog. It is believed to play a key role in the social interactions of horses as well as detecting other key scents in the environment. Horses have two olfactory centers. The first system is in the nostrils and nasal cavity, which analyze a wide range of odors. The second, located under the nasal cavity, are the Vomeronasal organs, also called Jacobson's organs. These have a separate nerve pathway to the brain and appear to primarily analyze pheromones.[71]

A horse's hearing is good,[67] and the pinna of each ear can rotate up to 180°, giving the potential for 360° hearing without having to move the head.[72] Noise impacts the behavior of horses and certain kinds of noise may contribute to stress: A 2013 study in the UK indicated that stabled horses were calmest in a quiet setting, or if listening to country or classical music, but displayed signs of nervousness when listening to jazz or rock music. This study also recommended keeping music under a volume of 21 decibels.[73] An Australian study found that stabled racehorses listening to talk radio had a higher rate of gastric ulcers than horses listening to music, and racehorses stabled where a radio was played had a higher overall rate of ulceration than horses stabled where there was no radio playing.[74]

Horses have a great sense of balance, due partly to their ability to feel their footing and partly to highly developed proprioception—the unconscious sense of where the body and limbs are at all times.[75] A horse's sense of touch is well developed. The most sensitive areas are around the eyes, ears, and nose.[76] Horses are able to sense contact as subtle as an insect landing anywhere on the body.[77]

Horses have an advanced sense of taste, which allows them to sort through fodder and choose what they would most like to eat,[78] and their prehensile lips can easily sort even small grains. Horses generally will not eat poisonous plants, however, there are exceptions; horses will occasionally eat toxic amounts of poisonous plants even when there is adequate healthy food.[79]

Movement
Film showing a horse running.
The gallop
Main articles: Horse gait, Trot (horse gait), Canter and Ambling
All horses move naturally with four basic gaits: the four-beat walk, which averages 6.4 kilometres per hour (4.0 mph); the two-beat trot or jog at 13 to 19 kilometres per hour (8.1 to 11.8 mph) (faster for harness racing horses); the canter or lope, a three-beat gait that is 19 to 24 kilometres per hour (12 to 15 mph); and the gallop.[80] The gallop averages 40 to 48 kilometres per hour (25 to 30 mph),[81] but the world record for a horse galloping over a short, sprint distance is 70.76 kilometres per hour (43.97 mph).[82] Besides these basic gaits, some horses perform a two-beat pace, instead of the trot.[83] There also are several four-beat "ambling" gaits that are approximately the speed of a trot or pace, though smoother to ride. These include the lateral rack, running walk, and tölt as well as the diagonal fox trot.[84] Ambling gaits are often genetic in some breeds, known collectively as gaited horses.[85] Often, gaited horses replace the trot with one of the ambling gaits.[86]

Behavior
Main articles: Horse behavior and Stable vices
Horses are prey animals with a strong fight-or-flight response. Their first reaction to threat is to startle and usually flee, although they will stand their ground and defend themselves when flight is impossible or if their young are threatened.[87] They also tend to be curious; when startled, they will often hesitate an instant to ascertain the cause of their fright, and may not always flee from something that they perceive as non-threatening. Most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed, agility, alertness and endurance; natural qualities that extend from their wild ancestors. However, through selective breeding, some breeds of horses are quite docile, particularly certain draft horses.[88]

Horses are herd animals, with a clear hierarchy of rank, led by a dominant individual, usually a mare. They are also social creatures that are able to form companionship attachments to their own species and to other animals, including humans. They communicate in various ways, including vocalizations such as nickering or whinnying, mutual grooming, and body language. Many horses will become difficult to manage if they are isolated, but with training, horses can learn to accept a human as a companion, and thus be comfortable away from other horses.[89] However, when confined with insufficient companionship, exercise, or stimulation, individuals may develop stable vices, an assortment of bad habits, mostly stereotypies of psychological origin, that include wood chewing, wall kicking, "weaving" (rocking back and forth), and other problems.[90]

Intelligence and learning
Studies have indicated that horses perform a number of cognitive tasks on a daily basis, meeting mental challenges that include food procurement and identification of individuals within a social system. They also have good spatial discrimination abilities.[91] Studies have assessed equine intelligence in areas such as problem solving, speed of learning, and memory. Horses excel at simple learning, but also are able to use more advanced cognitive abilities that involve categorization and concept learning. They can learn using habituation, desensitization, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning, and positive and negative reinforcement.[91] One study has indicated that horses can differentiate between "more or less" if the quantity involved is less than four.[92]

Domesticated horses may face greater mental challenges than wild horses, because they live in artificial environments that prevent instinctive behavior whilst also learning tasks that are not natural.[91] Horses are animals of habit that respond well to regimentation, and respond best when the same routines and techniques are used consistently. One trainer believes that "intelligent" horses are reflections of intelligent trainers who effectively use response conditioning techniques and positive reinforcement to train in the style that best fits with an individual animal's natural inclinations.[93]

Temperament
Main articles: Draft horse, Warmblood and Oriental horse
Horses are mammals, and as such are warm-blooded, or endothermic creatures, as opposed to cold-blooded, or poikilothermic animals. However, these words have developed a separate meaning in the context of equine terminology, used to describe temperament, not body temperature. For example, the "hot-bloods", such as many race horses, exhibit more sensitivity and energy,[94] while the "cold-bloods", such as most draft breeds, are quieter and calmer.[95] Sometimes "hot-bloods" are classified as "light horses" or "riding horses",[96] with the "cold-bloods" classified as "draft horses" or "work horses".[97]

a sepia-toned engraving from an old book, showing 11 horses of different breeds and sizes in nine different illustrations
Illustration of assorted breeds; slim, light hotbloods, medium-sized warmbloods and draft and pony-type coldblood breeds
"Hot blooded" breeds include "oriental horses" such as the Akhal-Teke, Arabian horse, Barb and now-extinct Turkoman horse, as well as the Thoroughbred, a breed developed in England from the older oriental breeds.[94] Hot bloods tend to be spirited, bold, and learn quickly. They are bred for agility and speed.[98] They tend to be physically refined—thin-skinned, slim, and long-legged.[99] The original oriental breeds were brought to Europe from the Middle East and North Africa when European breeders wished to infuse these traits into racing and light cavalry horses.[100][101]

Muscular, heavy draft horses are known as "cold bloods", as they are bred not only for strength, but also to have the calm, patient temperament needed to pull a plow or a heavy carriage full of people.[95] They are sometimes nicknamed "gentle giants".[102] Well-known draft breeds include the Belgian and the Clydesdale.[102] Some, like the Percheron, are lighter and livelier, developed to pull carriages or to plow large fields in drier climates.[103] Others, such as the Shire, are slower and more powerful, bred to plow fields with heavy, clay-based soils.[104] The cold-blooded group also includes some pony breeds.[105]

"Warmblood" breeds, such as the Trakehner or Hanoverian, developed when European carriage and war horses were crossed with Arabians or Thoroughbreds, producing a riding horse with more refinement than a draft horse, but greater size and milder temperament than a lighter breed.[106] Certain pony breeds with warmblood characteristics have been developed for smaller riders.[107] Warmbloods are considered a "light horse" or "riding horse".[96]

Today, the term "Warmblood" refers to a specific subset of sport horse breeds that are used for competition in dressage and show jumping.[108] Strictly speaking, the term "warm blood" refers to any cross between cold-blooded and hot-blooded breeds.[109] Examples include breeds such as the Irish Draught or the Cleveland Bay. The term was once used to refer to breeds of light riding horse other than Thoroughbreds or Arabians, such as the Morgan horse.[98]

Sleep patterns
See also: Horse sleep patterns and Sleep in non-humans
Two horses in a pasture, one is standing beside the other that is laying down.
When horses lie down to sleep, others in the herd remain standing, awake or in a light doze, keeping watch.
Horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. In an adaptation from life in the wild, horses are able to enter light sleep by using a "stay apparatus" in their legs, allowing them to doze without collapsing.[110] Horses sleep better when in groups because some animals will sleep while others stand guard to watch for predators. A horse kept alone will not sleep well because its instincts are to keep a constant eye out for danger.[111]

Unlike humans, horses do not sleep in a solid, unbroken period of time, but take many short periods of rest. Horses spend four to fifteen hours a day in standing rest, and from a few minutes to several hours lying down. Total sleep time in a 24-hour period may range from several minutes to a couple of hours,[111] mostly in short intervals of about 15 minutes each.[112] The average sleep time of a domestic horse is said to be 2.9 hours per day.[113]

Horses must lie down to reach REM sleep. They only have to lie down for an hour or two every few days to meet their minimum REM sleep requirements.[111] However, if a horse is never allowed to lie down, after several days it will become sleep-deprived, and in rare cases may suddenly collapse as it involuntarily slips into REM sleep while still standing.[114] This condition differs from narcolepsy, although horses may also suffer from that disorder.[115]

Taxonomy and evolution

From left to right: Size development, biometrical changes in the cranium, reduction of toes (left forefoot)
Main articles: Evolution of the horse, Equus (genus) and Equidae
The horse adapted to survive in areas of wide-open terrain with sparse vegetation, surviving in an ecosystem where other large grazing animals, especially ruminants, could not.[116] Horses and other equids are odd-toed ungulates of the order Perissodactyla, a group of mammals that was dominant during the Tertiary period. In the past, this order contained 14 families, but only three—Equidae (the horse and related species), the tapir, and the rhinoceros—have survived to the present day.[117]

The earliest known member of the family Equidae was the Hyracotherium, which lived between 45 and 55 million years ago, during the Eocene period. It had 4 toes on each front foot, and 3 toes on each back foot.[118] The extra toe on the front feet soon disappeared with the Mesohippus, which lived 32 to 37 million years ago.[119] Over time, the extra side toes shrank in size until they vanished. All that remains of them in modern horses is a set of small vestigial bones on the leg below the knee,[120] known informally as splint bones.[121] Their legs also lengthened as their toes disappeared until they were a hooved animal capable of running at great speed.[120] By about 5 million years ago, the modern Equus had evolved.[122] Equid teeth also evolved from browsing on soft, tropical plants to adapt to browsing of drier plant material, then to grazing of tougher plains grasses. Thus proto-horses changed from leaf-eating forest-dwellers to grass-eating inhabitants of semi-arid regions worldwide, including the steppes of Eurasia and the Great Plains of North America.

By about 15,000 years ago, Equus ferus was a widespread holarctic species. Horse bones from this time period, the late Pleistocene, are found in Europe, Eurasia, Beringia, and North America.[123] Yet between 10,000 and 7,600 years ago, the horse became extinct in North America and rare elsewhere.[124][125][126] The reasons for this extinction are not fully known, but one theory notes that extinction in North America paralleled human arrival.[127] Another theory points to climate change, noting that approximately 12,500 years ago, the grasses characteristic of a steppe ecosystem gave way to shrub tundra, which was covered with unpalatable plants.[128]

Wild species surviving into modern times
Three tan colored horses with upright manes. Two horses nip and paw at each other, while the third moves towards the camera. They stand in open, rocky grassland, with forests in the distance.
A small herd of Przewalski's Horses
Main article: Wild horse
A truly wild horse is a species or subspecies with no ancestors that were ever domesticated. Therefore, most "wild" horses today are actually feral horses, animals that escaped or were turned loose from domestic herds and the descendants of those animals.[129] Only two never-domesticated subspecies, the Tarpan and the Przewalski's Horse, survived into recorded history and only the latter survives today.

The Przewalski's horse (Equus ferus przewalskii), named after the Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky, is a rare Asian animal. It is also known as the Mongolian wild horse; Mongolian people know it as the taki, and the Kyrgyz people call it a kirtag. The subspecies was presumed extinct in the wild between 1969 and 1992, while a small breeding population survived in zoos around the world. In 1992, it was reestablished in the wild due to the conservation efforts of numerous zoos.[130] Today, a small wild breeding population exists in Mongolia.[131][132] There are additional animals still maintained at zoos throughout the world.

The tarpan or European wild horse (Equus ferus ferus) was found in Europe and much of Asia. It survived into the historical era, but became extinct in 1909, when the last captive died in a Russian zoo.[133] Thus, the genetic line was lost. Attempts have been made to recreate the tarpan,[133][134][135] which resulted in horses with outward physical similarities, but nonetheless descended from domesticated ancestors and not true wild horses.

Periodically, populations of horses in isolated areas are speculated to be relict populations of wild horses, but generally have been proven to be feral or domestic. For example, the Riwoche horse of Tibet was proposed as such,[132] but testing did not reveal genetic differences from domesticated horses.[136] Similarly, the Sorraia of Portugal was proposed as a direct descendant of the Tarpan based on shared characteristics,[137][138] but genetic studies have shown that the Sorraia is more closely related to other horse breeds and that the outward similarity is an unreliable measure of relatedness.[137][139]

Other modern equids
Main article: Equus (genus)
Besides the horse, there are seven other species of genus Equus in the Equidae family. These are the ass or donkey, Equus asinus; the mountain zebra, Equus zebra; plains zebra, Equus quagga; Grévy's zebra, Equus grevyi; the kiang, Equus kiang; and the onager, Equus hemionus.[140]

Horses can crossbreed with other members of their genus. The most common hybrid is the mule, a cross between a "jack" (male donkey) and a mare. A related hybrid, a hinny, is a cross between a stallion and a jenny (female donkey).[141] Other hybrids include the zorse, a cross between a zebra and a horse.[142] With rare exceptions, most hybrids are sterile and cannot reproduce.[143]

Domestication
Main article: Domestication of the horse

Bhimbetka rock painting showing man riding on horse, India
Domestication of the horse most likely took place in central Asia prior to 3500 BC. Two major sources of information are used to determine where and when the horse was first domesticated and how the domesticated horse spread around the world. The first source is based on palaeological and archaeological discoveries; the second source is a comparison of DNA obtained from modern horses to that from bones and teeth of ancient horse remains.

The earliest archaeological evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from sites in Ukraine and Kazakhstan, dating to approximately 3500–4000 BC.[144][145][146] By 3000 BC, the horse was completely domesticated and by 2000 BC there was a sharp increase in the number of horse bones found in human settlements in northwestern Europe, indicating the spread of domesticated horses throughout the continent.[147] The most recent, but most irrefutable evidence of domestication comes from sites where horse remains were interred with chariots in graves of the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures c. 2100 BC.[148]

Domestication is also studied by using the genetic material of present-day horses and comparing it with the genetic material present in the bones and teeth of horse remains found in archaeological and palaeological excavations. The variation in the genetic material shows that very few wild stallions contributed to the domestic horse,[149][150] while many mares were part of early domesticated herds.[139][151][152] This is reflected in the difference in genetic variation between the DNA that is passed on along the paternal, or sire line (Y-chromosome) versus that passed on along the maternal, or dam line (mitochondrial DNA). There are very low levels of Y-chromosome variability,[149][150] but a great deal of genetic variation in mitochondrial DNA.[139][151][152] There is also regional variation in mitochondrial DNA due to the inclusion of wild mares in domestic herds.[139][151][152][153] Another characteristic of domestication is an increase in coat color variation.[154] In horses, this increased dramatically between 5000 and 3000 BC.[155]

Before the availability of DNA techniques to resolve the questions related to the domestication of the horse, various hypotheses were proposed. One classification was based on body types and conformation, suggesting the presence of four basic prototypes that had adapted to their environment prior to domestication.[105] Another hypothesis held that the four prototypes originated from a single wild species and that all different body types were entirely a result of selective breeding after domestication.[156] However, the lack of a detectable substructure in the horse has resulted in a rejection of both hypotheses.

Feral populations
Main article: Feral horse
Feral horses are born and live in the wild, but are descended from domesticated animals.[129] Many populations of feral horses exist throughout the world.[157][158] Studies of feral herds have provided useful insights into the behavior of prehistoric horses,[159] as well as greater understanding of the instincts and behaviors that drive horses that live in domesticated conditions.[160]

There are also semi-feral horses in many parts of the world, such as Dartmoor and the New Forest in the UK, where the animals are all privately owned but live for significant amounts of time in "wild" conditions on undeveloped, often public, lands. Owners of such animals often pay a fee for grazing rights.[161][162]

Breeds
Main articles: Horse breed, List of horse breeds and Horse breeding
The concept of purebred bloodstock and a controlled, written breed registry has come to be particularly significant and important in modern times. Sometimes purebred horses are incorrectly or inaccurately called "thoroughbreds". Thoroughbred is a specific breed of horse, while a "purebred" is a horse (or any other animal) with a defined pedigree recognized by a breed registry.[163] Horse breeds are groups of horses with distinctive characteristics that are transmitted consistently to their offspring, such as conformation, color, performance ability, or disposition. These inherited traits result from a combination of natural crosses and artificial selection methods. Horses have been selectively bred since their domestication. An early example of people who practiced selective horse breeding were the Bedouin, who had a reputation for careful practices, keeping extensive pedigrees of their Arabian horses and placing great value upon pure bloodlines.[164] These pedigrees were originally transmitted via an oral tradition.[165] In the 14th century, Carthusian monks of southern Spain kept meticulous pedigrees of bloodstock lineages still found today in the Andalusian horse.[166]

Breeds developed due to a need for "form to function", the necessity to develop certain characteristics in order to perform a particular type of work.[167] Thus, a powerful but refined breed such as the Andalusian developed as riding horses with an aptitude for dressage.[167] Heavy draft horses developed out of a need to perform demanding farm work and pull heavy wagons.[168] Other horse breeds developed specifically for light agricultural work, carriage and road work, various sport disciplines, or simply as pets.[169] Some breeds developed through centuries of crossing other breeds, while others descended from a single foundation sire, or other limited or restricted foundation bloodstock. One of the earliest formal registries was General Stud Book for Thoroughbreds, which began in 1791 and traced back to the foundation bloodstock for the breed.[170] There are more than 300 horse breeds in the world today.[171]

Interaction with humans

Equine hospital in the United Kingdom
Worldwide, horses play a role within human cultures and have done so for millennia. Horses are used for leisure activities, sports, and working purposes. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that in 2008, there were almost 59,000,000 horses in the world, with around 33,500,000 in the Americas, 13,800,000 in Asia and 6,300,000 in Europe and smaller portions in Africa and Oceania. There are estimated to be 9,500,000 horses in the United States alone.[172] The American Horse Council estimates that horse-related activities have a direct impact on the economy of the United States of over $39 billion, and when indirect spending is considered, the impact is over $102 billion.[173] In a 2004 "poll" conducted by Animal Planet, more than 50,000 viewers from 73 countries voted for the horse as the world's 4th favorite animal.[174]

Communication between human and horse is paramount in any equestrian activity;[175] to aid this process horses are usually ridden with a saddle on their backs to assist the rider with balance and positioning, and a bridle or related headgear to assist the rider in maintaining control.[176] Sometimes horses are ridden without a saddle,[177] and occasionally, horses are trained to perform without a bridle or other headgear.[178] Many horses are also driven, which requires a harness, bridle, and some type of vehicle.[179]

Sport
A chestnut (reddish-brown) horse being ridden by a rider in a black coat and top hat. They are stopped in a riding arena with the rider tipping his hat.
A horse and rider in dressage competition at the Olympics
Main articles: Equestrianism, Horse racing, Horse training and Horse tack
Historically, equestrians honed their skills through games and races. Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds and honed the excellent horsemanship that was needed in battle. Many sports, such as dressage, eventing and show jumping, have origins in military training, which were focused on control and balance of both horse and rider. Other sports, such as rodeo, developed from practical skills such as those needed on working ranches and stations. Sport hunting from horseback evolved from earlier practical hunting techniques.[175] Horse racing of all types evolved from impromptu competitions between riders or drivers. All forms of competition, requiring demanding and specialized skills from both horse and rider, resulted in the systematic development of specialized breeds and equipment for each sport. The popularity of equestrian sports through the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would otherwise have disappeared after horses stopped being used in combat.[175]

Horses are trained to be ridden or driven in a variety of sporting competitions. Examples include show jumping, dressage, three-day eventing, competitive driving, endurance riding, gymkhana, rodeos, and fox hunting.[180] Horse shows, which have their origins in medieval European fairs, are held around the world. They host a huge range of classes, covering all of the mounted and harness disciplines, as well as "In-hand" classes where the horses are led, rather than ridden, to be evaluated on their conformation. The method of judging varies with the discipline, but winning usually depends on style and ability of both horse and rider.[181] Sports such as polo do not judge the horse itself, but rather use the horse as a partner for human competitors as a necessary part of the game. Although the horse requires specialized training to participate, the details of its performance are not judged, only the result of the rider's actions—be it getting a ball through a goal or some other task.[182] Examples of these sports of partnership between human and horse include jousting, in which the main goal is for one rider to unseat the other,[183] and buzkashi, a team game played throughout Central Asia, the aim being to capture a goat carcass while on horseback.[182]

Horse racing is an equestrian sport and major international industry, watched in almost every nation of the world. There are three types: "flat" racing; steeplechasing, i.e. racing over jumps; and harness racing, where horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a small, light cart known as a sulky.[184] A major part of horse racing's economic importance lies in the gambling associated with it.[185]

Work
A mounted man in a blue uniform on a dark brown horse
A mounted police officer in Poland
There are certain jobs that horses do very well, and no technology has yet developed to fully replace them. For example, mounted police horses are still effective for certain types of patrol duties and crowd control.[186] Cattle ranches still require riders on horseback to round up cattle that are scattered across remote, rugged terrain.[187] Search and rescue organizations in some countries depend upon mounted teams to locate people, particularly hikers and children, and to provide disaster relief assistance.[188] Horses can also be used in areas where it is necessary to avoid vehicular disruption to delicate soil, such as nature reserves. They may also be the only form of transport allowed in wilderness areas. Horses are quieter than motorized vehicles. Law enforcement officers such as park rangers or game wardens may use horses for patrols, and horses or mules may also be used for clearing trails or other work in areas of rough terrain where vehicles are less effective.[189]

Tanga (carriage) at Darbhanga Bihar
Although machinery has replaced horses in many parts of the world, an estimated 100 million horses, donkeys and mules are still used for agriculture and transportation in less developed areas. This number includes around 27 million working animals in Africa alone.[190] Some land management practices such as cultivating and logging can be efficiently performed with horses. In agriculture, less fossil fuel is used and increased environmental conservation occurs over time with the use of draft animals such as horses.[191][192] Logging with horses can result in reduced damage to soil structure and less damage to trees due to more selective logging.[193]

Entertainment and culture

The horse-headed deity in Hinduism, Hayagriva
See also: Horses in art and Horse worship
Modern horses are often used to reenact many of their historical work purposes. Horses are used, complete with equipment that is authentic or a meticulously recreated replica, in various live action historical reenactments of specific periods of history, especially recreations of famous battles.[194] Horses are also used to preserve cultural traditions and for ceremonial purposes. Countries such as the United Kingdom still use horse-drawn carriages to convey royalty and other VIPs to and from certain culturally significant events.[195] Public exhibitions are another example, such as the Budweiser Clydesdales, seen in parades and other public settings, a team of draft horses that pull a beer wagon similar to that used before the invention of the modern motorized truck.[196]

Horses are frequently seen in television, films and literature. They are sometimes featured as a major character in films about particular animals, but also used as visual elements that assure the accuracy of historical stories.[197] Both live horses and iconic images of horses are used in advertising to promote a variety of products.[198] The horse frequently appears in coats of arms in heraldry, in a variety of poses and equipment.[199] The mythologies of many cultures, including Greco-Roman, Hindu, Islamic, and Norse, include references to both normal horses and those with wings or additional limbs, and multiple myths also call upon the horse to draw the chariots of the Moon and Sun.[200] The horse also appears in the 12-year cycle of animals in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar.[201]

Therapeutic use
See also: Hippotherapy and Therapeutic horseback riding
People of all ages with physical and mental disabilities obtain beneficial results from association with horses. Therapeutic riding is used to mentally and physically stimulate disabled persons and help them improve their lives through improved balance and coordination, increased self-confidence, and a greater feeling of freedom and independence.[202] The benefits of equestrian activity for people with disabilities has also been recognized with the addition of equestrian events to the Paralympic Games and recognition of para-equestrian events by the International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI).[203] Hippotherapy and therapeutic horseback riding are names for different physical, occupational, and speech therapy treatment strategies that utilize equine movement. In hippotherapy, a therapist uses the horse's movement to improve their patient's cognitive, coordination, balance, and fine motor skills, whereas therapeutic horseback riding uses specific riding skills.[204]

Horses also provide psychological benefits to people whether they actually ride or not. "Equine-assisted" or "equine-facilitated" therapy is a form of experiential psychotherapy that uses horses as companion animals to assist people with mental illness, including anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, mood disorders, behavioral difficulties, and those who are going through major life changes.[205] There are also experimental programs using horses in prison settings. Exposure to horses appears to improve the behavior of inmates and help reduce recidivism when they leave.[206]

Warfare
Main article: Horses in warfare
Black and white photo of mounted soldiers with middle eastern headwraps, carrying rifles, walking down a road away from the camera
Turkish cavalry, 1917
Horses have been used in warfare for most of recorded history. The first archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare dates to between 4000 and 3000 BC,[207] and the use of horses in warfare was widespread by the end of the Bronze Age.[208][209] Although mechanization has largely replaced the horse as a weapon of war, horses are still seen today in limited military uses, mostly for ceremonial purposes, or for reconnaissance and transport activities in areas of rough terrain where motorized vehicles are ineffective. Horses have been used in the 21st century by the Janjaweed militias in the War in Darfur.[210]

Products
Horses are raw material for many products made by humans throughout history, including byproducts from the slaughter of horses as well as materials collected from living horses.

Products collected from living horses include mare's milk, used by people with large horse herds, such as the Mongols, who let it ferment to produce kumis.[211] Horse blood was once used as food by the Mongols and other nomadic tribes, who found it a convenient source of nutrition when traveling. Drinking their own horses' blood allowed the Mongols to ride for extended periods of time without stopping to eat.[211] The drug Premarin is a mixture of estrogens extracted from the urine of pregnant mares (pregnant mares' urine), and was previously a widely used drug for hormone replacement therapy.[212] The tail hair of horses can be used for making bows for string instruments such as the violin, viola, cello, and double bass.[213]

Horse meat has been used as food for humans and carnivorous animals throughout the ages. It is eaten in many parts of the world, though consumption is taboo in some cultures,[214] and a subject of political controversy in others.[215] Horsehide leather has been used for boots, gloves, jackets,[216] baseballs,[217] and baseball gloves. Horse hooves can also be used to produce animal glue.[218] Horse bones can be used to make implements.[219] Specifically, in Italian cuisine, the horse tibia is sharpened into a probe called a spinto, which is used to test the readiness of a (pig) ham as it cures.[220] In Asia, the saba is a horsehide vessel used in the production of kumis.[221]

Care
Main article: Horse care
See also: Equine nutrition, Horse grooming, Veterinary medicine, and Farrier
A young man in US military clothing examines the teeth of a bay (dark brown) horse, while another person in military work clothing, partially obscured, holds the horse. Several other people are partially visible in the background.
Checking teeth and other physical examinations are an important part of horse care.
Horses are grazing animals, and their major source of nutrients is good-quality forage from hay or pasture.[222] They can consume approximately 2% to 2.5% of their body weight in dry feed each day. Therefore, a 450-kilogram (990 lb) adult horse could eat up to 11 kilograms (24 lb) of food.[223] Sometimes, concentrated feed such as grain is fed in addition to pasture or hay, especially when the animal is very active.[224] When grain is fed, equine nutritionists recommend that 50% or more of the animal's diet by weight should still be forage.[225]

Horses require a plentiful supply of clean water, a minimum of 10 US gallons (38 L) to 12 US gallons (45 L) per day.[226] Although horses are adapted to live outside, they require shelter from the wind and precipitation, which can range from a simple shed or shelter to an elaborate stable.[227]

Horses require routine hoof care from a farrier, as well as vaccinations to protect against various diseases, and dental examinations from a veterinarian or a specialized equine dentist.[228] If horses are kept inside in a barn, they require regular daily exercise for their physical health and mental well-being.[229] When turned outside, they require well-maintained, sturdy fences to be safely contained.[230] Regular grooming is also helpful to help the horse maintain good health of the hair coat and underlying skin.[231]

See also
Glossary of equestrian terms
References
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Sources
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Bongianni, Maurizio (1987). Simon & Schuster's Guide to Horses and Ponies. New York: Fireside. ISBN 0-671-66068-3.
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Harris, Susan E. (1993). Horse Gaits, Balance and Movement. New York: Howell Book House. ISBN 0-87605-955-8. OCLC 25873158.
McBane, Susan (1997). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horse Breeds. Edison, NJ: Wellfleet Press. ISBN 0-7858-0604-0. OCLC 244110821.
Miller, Robert M. (1999). Understanding the Ancient Secrets of the Horse's Mind. Neenah, WI: Russell Meerdink Company Ltd. ISBN 0-929346-65-3. OCLC 42389612.
Price, Steven D.; Spector, David L..; Gail Rentsch; Burn, Barbara B. (editors) (1998). The Whole Horse Catalog: Revised and Updated (Revised ed.). New York: Fireside. ISBN 0-684-83995-4.
Sponenberg, D. Phillip (1996). "The Proliferation of Horse Breeds". Horses Through Time (First ed.). Boulder, CO: Roberts Rinehart Publishers. ISBN 1-57098-060-8. OCLC 36179575.
Whitaker, Julie; Whitelaw, Ian (2007). The Horse: A Miscellany of Equine Knowledge. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-37108-X.
Further reading
Apperson, George Latimer; Martin Manser (2006). Dictionary of Proverbs. Wordsworth Editions. ISBN 1-84022-311-1.
Chamberlin, J. Edward (2006). Horse: How the Horse Has Shaped Civilizations. New York, NY: Bluebridge. ISBN 0-9742405-9-1. OCLC 61704732.
Hammond, Gerald (2000). The Language of Horse Racing. London: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 1-57958-276-1. OCLC 44923115.
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